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sai8368
Posts:
236
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Join Date:
13-Aug-2007
Location:Beijing 北京
Age:20-24 |
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27-Aug-2007 09:52
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A Clean, Well-Lighted Place
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It was very late and everyone had left the cafe except an old man who sat in the shadow the leaves of the tree made against the electric light. In the day time the street was dusty, but at night the dew settled the dust and the old man liked to sit late because he was deaf and now at night it was quiet and he felt the difference. The two waiters inside the cafe knew that the old man was a little drunk, and while he was a good client they knew that if he became too drunk he would leave without paying, so they kept watch on him.
"Last week he tried to commit suicide," one waiter said.
"Why?"
"He was in despair."
"What about?"
"Nothing."
"How do you know it was nothing?"
"He has plenty of money."
They sat together at a table that was close against the wall near the door of the cafe and looked at the terrace where the tables were all empty except where the old man sat in the shadow of the leaves of the tree that moved slightly in the wind. A girl and a soldier went by in the street. The street light shone on the brass number on his collar. The girl wore no head covering and hurried beside him.
"The guard will pick him up," one waiter said.
"What does it matter if he gets what he's after?"
"He had better get off the street now. The guard will get him. They went by five minutes ago."
The old man sitting in the shadow rapped on his saucer with his glass. The younger waiter went over to him.
"What do you want?"
The old man looked at him. "Another brandy," he said.
"You'll be drunk," the waiter said. The old man looked at him. The waiter went away.
"He'll stay all night," he said to his colleague. "I'm sleepy now. I never get into bed before three o'clock. He should have killed himself last week."
The waiter took the brandy bottle and another saucer from the counter inside the cafe and marched out to the old man's table. He put down the saucer and poured the glass full of brandy.
"You should have killed yourself last week," he said to the deaf man. The old man motioned with his finger. "A little more," he said. The waiter poured on into the glass so that the brandy slopped over and ran down the stem into the top saucer of the pile. "Thank you," the old man said. The waiter took the bottle back inside the cafe. He sat down at the table with his colleague again.
"He's drunk now," he said.
"He's drunk every night."
"What did he want to kill himself for?"
"How should I know."
"How did he do it?"
"He hung himself with a rope."
"Who cut him down?"
"His niece."
"Why did they do it?"
"Fear for his soul."
"How much money has he got?" "He's got plenty."
"He must be eighty years old."
"Anyway I should say he was eighty."
"I wish he would go home. I never get to bed before three o'clock. What kind of hour is that to go to bed?"
"He stays up because he likes it."
"He's lonely. I'm not lonely. I have a wife waiting in bed for me."
"He had a wife once too."
"A wife would be no good to him now."
"You can't tell. He might be better with a wife."
"His niece looks after him. You said she cut him down."
"I know." "I wouldn't want to be that old. An old man is a nasty thing."
"Not always. This old man is clean. He drinks without spilling. Even now, drunk. Look at him."
"I don't want to look at him. I wish he would go home. He has no regard for those who must work."
The old man looked from his glass across the square, then over at the waiters.
"Another brandy," he said, pointing to his glass. The waiter who was in a hurry came over.
"Finished," he said, speaking with that omission of syntax stupid people employ when talking to drunken people or foreigners. "No more tonight. Close now."
"Another," said the old man.
"No. Finished." The waiter wiped the edge of the table with a towel and shook his head.
The old man stood up, slowly counted the saucers, took a leather coin purse from his pocket and paid for the drinks, leaving half a peseta tip. The waiter watched him go down the street, a very old man walking unsteadily but with dignity.
"Why didn't you let him stay and drink?" the unhurried waiter asked. They were putting up the shutters. "It is not half-past two."
"I want to go home to bed."
"What is an hour?"
"More to me than to him."
"An hour is the same."
"You talk like an old man yourself. He can buy a bottle and drink at home."
"It's not the same."
"No, it is not," agreed the waiter with a wife. He did not wish to be unjust. He was only in a hurry.
"And you? You have no fear of going home before your usual hour?"
"Are you trying to insult me?"
"No, hombre, only to make a joke."
"No," the waiter who was in a hurry said, rising from pulling down the metal shutters. "I have confidence. I am all confidence."
"You have youth, confidence, and a job," the older waiter said. "You have everything."
"And what do you lack?"
"Everything but work."
"You have everything I have."
"No. I have never had confidence and I am not young."
"Come on. Stop talking nonsense and lock up."
"I am of those who like to stay late at the cafe," the older waiter said.
"With all those who do not want to go to bed. With all those who need a light for the night."
"I want to go home and into bed."
"We are of two different kinds," the older waiter said. He was now dressed to go home. "It is not only a question of youth and confidence although those things are very beautiful. Each night I am reluctant to close up because there may be some one who needs the cafe."
"Hombre, there are bodegas open all night long."
"You do not understand. This is a clean and pleasant cafe. It is well lighted. The light is very good and also, now, there are shadows of the leaves."
"Good night," said the younger waiter.
"Good night," the other said. Turning off the electric light he continued the conversation with himself, It was the light of course but it is necessary that the place be clean and pleasant. You do not want music. Certainly you do not want music. Nor can you stand before a bar with dignity although that is all that is provided for these hours. What did he fear? It was not a fear or dread, It was a nothing that he knew too well. It was all a nothing and a man was a nothing too. It was only that and light was all it needed and a certain cleanness and order. Some lived in it and never felt it but he knew it all was nada y pues nada y nada y pues nada. Our nada who art in nada, nada be thy name thy kingdom nada thy will be nada in nada as it is in nada. Give us this nada our daily nada and nada us our nada as we nada our nadas and nada us not into nada but deliver us from nada; pues nada. Hail nothing full of nothing, nothing is with thee. He smiled and stood before a bar with a shining steam pressure coffee machine.
"What's yours?" asked the barman.
"Nada."
"Otro loco mas," said the barman and turned away.
"A little cup," said the waiter.
The barman poured it for him.
"The light is very bright and pleasant but the bar is unpolished," the waiter said.
The barman looked at him but did not answer. It was too late at night for conversation.
"You want another copita?" the barman asked.
"No, thank you," said the waiter and went out. He disliked bars and bodegas. A clean, well-lighted cafe was a very different thing. Now, without thinking further, he would go home to his room. He would lie in the bed and finally, with daylight, he would go to sleep. After all, he said to himself, it's probably only insomnia. Many must have it.
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27-Aug-2007 09:49
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A Letter to Year 2100
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Dear you,
Are you wearing pajamas? I do not mean to begin this letter by getting personal.I was just wondering if you people leave the house anymore. Somthing that seems to be increasingly unnecessary these days, A hundard years ago.
Are you six-feet-six? Are you fly-fishing on Mars? Are you talking on the cell phone? We are, usually.
As lovers leaving lovers say. By the time you read this,I'll be gone. Or posibbly I won't.Given the way life is being prolonged these days. I, with my pig's liver , titanium hips and knees,artifical heart,thranplanted kidney and reconstracted DNA,could write this letter in my centry and pick it up in yours.
I write you in a dead winter from a summer village by the Atlamtic Ocean. The last of houseflies beats its body against the window,through which I watch the tremors of a berry trees and the shorn stoic trees.
Afternoon lowers on evening,the sky is the color of unpublished silver. A Cole Porter song, In the still of the night, goes throught my head. I do not know why.
We are generally content, generally at peace, generally optimistic, and with good reason.We are generally rich,more people have homes theirs own.We are generally healthy, thanks largely to remarkbale advances in medicine.People who died of certain dieases even 30 years age are rountinely saved today.
In short,we are generally OK in spire of notable low spots and areas of significant concern. Our movies are mostly silly. Our books? Mostly small.The quality of our culture criticism is generally so low that one can not tell how good or bad any others is.But in lierature, at least, it is highly unlikly that any writer toured as a heavyweigh in our era or make it to the ring in yours.Movies that once were judged by normal artistic criteria are now valued by the amount of money they make over a weekend. For your horrified amusement, see if u dig up something called"Scream" or "The Blair With Project".
We enlarge and expand. we have recently found out that the entired universe is expanding more than we had initially believed.We build, invent and discover at a peace that is dizzing for us,perhaps turtle footed for you.
I wonder how far you have progressed.I wonder if you figured out how to make the best use of the past. I see you looking back at us.You see us looking out of at you.Because we can imagine one another, we constitute each other's dreams.
Outside,the air is cold and deep. The moom hangs in a fingernail of light. The clouds conspire and retreat to reveal your strats and ours. Come. Walk with me in the chill still of the night.
Yours,
Roger Rosenblatt
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24-Aug-2007 16:34
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^^
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league是指「联盟」，好比美国职棒的「大联盟」就是Major League。A be out of B's league.这句话的意思就是A的层级、能耐或是地位……都比B高出许多，非B所能及。若是使用在男女关系上，就是指「B配不上A」，若是使用在一般分胜负的情况，就是指「B比不上A」。
28. talk back
talk back字面的意思是「说回去」，也就是「回嘴，顶嘴」的意思。用在句子里，你可以说Don't talk back to your parents.「别跟父母顶嘴」。或是简洁地说Don't talk back.「不许顶嘴」。
29. spare no effort
spare的意思是「省却，省下」，effort是「努力」，spare no effort就是指「不惜血本，不计代价」，也就是你下定决心，就算用尽一切资源，也要达成某一个目标。
30. Would you cut it out, already?
cut it out是指「住嘴，住手」的意思，Would you cut it out, already?这句话当中的already，暗示着说话者的极度不耐烦，整句话的意思就犹如中文里的「你到底是有完没完？」
31. for crying out loud
for crying out loud这个词组从字面上看，好像有大喊大叫的意思，不过在使用上，for crying out loud就跟for god's sake一样，都是表示说话者负面的评价，犹如中文里「搞什么名堂！」、「乱七八糟！」这类在语气中带有忿忿不平的话，同时暗示着说话者的不耐烦。
32. for your information
照字面上看，是「我提供讯息给你」的意思，但其实说这个词组时，说话者的口气通常会比较强硬，有着教训别人，或是指别人搞不清楚状况的意味。
33. I must be losing it.
这句话当中的it是指「神智，理智」，所以lose it的意思就是「失去理智」，也就是「发疯」的意思。someone must be losing it.这句话的使用时机，是当你觉得有谁做出了脱离常轨的举动，你料想「……一定是疯了」。
34. This one is on me.
这句话，相当适用于男性看倌，通常在和女朋友外出用餐或是跟一伙人一起吃喝，到了付账时总是气氛尴尬，要是此时你撂下This one is on me!「这顿算我的！」相信大伙绝对会对你报以英雄式欢呼。不过这种义气只能偶一为之，量力而为，不然苦的还是你自己。
35. even up the odds
odds是「胜算，成功的可能性」，通常用在赌博或是比赛的场合。你可以说The odds are high. 来表示「胜算高」。相对的，要说胜算「低」只要将high改成low即可。even 在这当作动词使用，是「使相等」的意思，因而even up the odds则可解释为「扳回劣势」。
36. What have we got here?
「看我们找到了什么？」这句话是相当口语的用法。What have we got here?经常被使用在翻箱倒柜找寻东西或是搜身等特殊情境，有一点寻宝的意味存在。
37. be out of the way
be out of the way就是「让路，誊出地方」。若你要表达「挡路」则是be in the way。另外Get out of my way!则是不客气地表达「滚开！」的意思。
38. Why all the trouble?
Why all the trouble?「干嘛费那么大劲」，这句短语是当一件事明明轻而易举地就可以完成，却有人要拐弯抹角做些事倍功半的白工，你就可以对他说Why all the trouble?
39. Call it a day.
这个词组字面上的意思指「就称它做一天。」进而引申为「到此为止，就这样结束。」当你要想要结束一件事不再追究，或是开会、上课在结尾前，主席或老师便可说Let's call it a day.「今天就到这里。」
40. You won't regret it.
regret 是指「后悔，懊恼」You won't regret it.的意思为「你不会后悔的」。You won't regret it.这句话常用在自己挂保证，怂恿对方绝对不会后悔的情况，譬如在作投资、店员作产品推销……等。
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24-Aug-2007 16:34
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^^
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league是指「联盟」，好比美国职棒的「大联盟」就是Major League。A be out of B's league.这句话的意思就是A的层级、能耐或是地位……都比B高出许多，非B所能及。若是使用在男女关系上，就是指「B配不上A」，若是使用在一般分胜负的情况，就是指「B比不上A」。
28. talk back
talk back字面的意思是「说回去」，也就是「回嘴，顶嘴」的意思。用在句子里，你可以说Don't talk back to your parents.「别跟父母顶嘴」。或是简洁地说Don't talk back.「不许顶嘴」。
29. spare no effort
spare的意思是「省却，省下」，effort是「努力」，spare no effort就是指「不惜血本，不计代价」，也就是你下定决心，就算用尽一切资源，也要达成某一个目标。
30. Would you cut it out, already?
cut it out是指「住嘴，住手」的意思，Would you cut it out, already?这句话当中的already，暗示着说话者的极度不耐烦，整句话的意思就犹如中文里的「你到底是有完没完？」
31. for crying out loud
for crying out loud这个词组从字面上看，好像有大喊大叫的意思，不过在使用上，for crying out loud就跟for god's sake一样，都是表示说话者负面的评价，犹如中文里「搞什么名堂！」、「乱七八糟！」这类在语气中带有忿忿不平的话，同时暗示着说话者的不耐烦。
32. for your information
照字面上看，是「我提供讯息给你」的意思，但其实说这个词组时，说话者的口气通常会比较强硬，有着教训别人，或是指别人搞不清楚状况的意味。
33. I must be losing it.
这句话当中的it是指「神智，理智」，所以lose it的意思就是「失去理智」，也就是「发疯」的意思。someone must be losing it.这句话的使用时机，是当你觉得有谁做出了脱离常轨的举动，你料想「……一定是疯了」。
34. This one is on me.
这句话，相当适用于男性看倌，通常在和女朋友外出用餐或是跟一伙人一起吃喝，到了付账时总是气氛尴尬，要是此时你撂下This one is on me!「这顿算我的！」相信大伙绝对会对你报以英雄式欢呼。不过这种义气只能偶一为之，量力而为，不然苦的还是你自己。
35. even up the odds
odds是「胜算，成功的可能性」，通常用在赌博或是比赛的场合。你可以说The odds are high. 来表示「胜算高」。相对的，要说胜算「低」只要将high改成low即可。even 在这当作动词使用，是「使相等」的意思，因而even up the odds则可解释为「扳回劣势」。
36. What have we got here?
「看我们找到了什么？」这句话是相当口语的用法。What have we got here?经常被使用在翻箱倒柜找寻东西或是搜身等特殊情境，有一点寻宝的意味存在。
37. be out of the way
be out of the way就是「让路，誊出地方」。若你要表达「挡路」则是be in the way。另外Get out of my way!则是不客气地表达「滚开！」的意思。
38. Why all the trouble?
Why all the trouble?「干嘛费那么大劲」，这句短语是当一件事明明轻而易举地就可以完成，却有人要拐弯抹角做些事倍功半的白工，你就可以对他说Why all the trouble?
39. Call it a day.
这个词组字面上的意思指「就称它做一天。」进而引申为「到此为止，就这样结束。」当你要想要结束一件事不再追究，或是开会、上课在结尾前，主席或老师便可说Let's call it a day.「今天就到这里。」
40. You won't regret it.
regret 是指「后悔，懊恼」You won't regret it.的意思为「你不会后悔的」。You won't regret it.这句话常用在自己挂保证，怂恿对方绝对不会后悔的情况，譬如在作投资、店员作产品推销……等。
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24-Aug-2007 16:33
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妙语佳句
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1. It's not like that. 不是那样的
It's not like that.这句话是用来辟谣的。当别人误会了一件事的来龙去脉，你就可以跟他说It's not like that.「不是那样的。」当然随着语气及情境的不同，It's not like that.这句话也有可能是你用来硬拗的藉口。
2. There is nothing good playing. 没好电影可看
这里的There's nothing good playing.是接着问句而来的，指的是「没有好电影可看。」同样的，若是电视上没有好节目可看，你就可以说There's nothing good on TV.
3. I've gotten carried away. 我扯太远了。
get carried away字面上的意思是「被带走了」，那么被带走的是什么呢？就是心思。当你或是他人说话的时候离了题，偏离主旨扯远了。你就可以用上这个表达法I've / You've gotten carried away.
4. Good thing... 还好，幸好…
在美语当中若要表达中文里「还好，幸好…」的语气，你就可以用Good thing...做开头。这个句型非常简单又好用，你只要在Good thing后面加上完整的句子就可以。
5. I don't believe you're bringing this up. 你现在提这件事真是岂有此理
你现在提这件事真是岂有此理bring something up是指「提到（某件事）」。当然情况会有正反两面。你若没想到对方会提起这件事讨骂，你可以说I don't believe you're bringing this up.。而反过来说，若你很高兴对方主动提起了一件事，你也可以用这个片语，自然说出I am glad you are bringing this up.
6. spy on... 跟监（某人）
spy这个字就是「间谍」。当动词用的意思自然就是「做间谍做的事」，也就是「监视，跟踪」之意。当你要去监视跟踪某人，美语中就说成spy on someone。
7. There's no other way of saying it.没有别种说法
有时候不管你再怎么转、再怎么拗，也没有办法更婉转或是避开一些绝对会出现的字，这时候你就可以用上There's no other way of saying it.这句话，来表达自己避无可避的为难，因为「没有别种说法。」
8. That will not always be the case. 情况不会永远是这样
case这个字有「情况」的意思，That will be the case.就是指「情况就会是这样了。」但是你若觉得现在的情况只会是暂时，不会长久，你就可以反过来说That will not always be the case.「情况不会永远是这样。」
9. She is coming on to you. 她对你有意思
She is coming on to you.这句话是用在两性的关系上，意思是「她对你投怀送抱。」也就是形容某人对某人有意思的情况，这个句型男女两性都适用；同样的情况，你也可以说She is making a pass at you.「她对你眉来眼去的。」这两种说法都很生动，而且最棒的是没有新单字，赞！
10. I was being polite.我这是在说客气话
polite这个字，我们在学校学的意思是「有礼貌的。」当然你若要说一个人有礼貌，你可以说He is polite.或是He has good manners.不过I was being polite.这句话是指「我这是在说客气话。」使用的情境比较趋近于客套而不伤和气的出发点，与「做作」artificial (a.)又不一样了。
11. stand someone up 放（某人）鸽子
stand someone up这个词组，大家若是第一次看到，想必多半是满头雾水，怎么单字全都认识，意思却完全猜不出来。其实stand someone up的意思就是「放（某人）鸽子」，这么简单又实用的句子，可得赶快记起来。
12. So that explains it. 原来如此
有时候事情的来龙去脉浑沌不清，让人摸不着头脑，若是突然曙光一现，让你豁然开朗，这会儿你就可以用上这句话So that explains it / everything.「这就都说得通了。」
13. I feel the same way. 我有同感。
当他人说出了你的感觉，你再同意也不过的时候，你就可以用上这句话I feel the same way.「我有同感。」这句话不但可以让你避免把同样的话再讲一次，帮你省了不少口水，还可以让对方觉得自己的意见被尊重呢。I feel the same way.赶快记起来。
14. Is there someone else? 你是不是有了新欢？
Is there someone else?这句话字面上是指「有其它人吗？」不过Is there someone else?这句话在使用上，问的那个「其它人」一定是感情上的「新欢，新对象」，所以若是情侣或是夫妻之间有人说了这句Is there someone else?「你是不是有了新欢？」这可就不太妙了。
15. I can't help myself. 我情不自禁
我无法控制自己。 I can't help myself.这句话可不是「我帮不了自己。」（赶快消除记忆），其实 I can't help myself. 这句话的意思是「我情不自禁。」指的是对自己的无能为力。I can't help... 这个句型很好用，若是你遇到一个情况，想要说「我不禁纳闷了起来。」在美语中你就可以直接说: I can't help but wonder.
16. come hell or high water
这个短语的使用时机是当你要去执行一项任务或是做一件事之际，只许成功不许失败的决心。 就犹如中文的「就算天崩地裂…」，比喻不论发生什么状况都要去完成使命。可以用在句首当作一句话的开头，或是放在句尾补述。
17. have something in common
have something in common是指「彼此有着共通点」，可能是嗜好，也可能是观念。若你和某人完全不对盘，丝毫没有共通点，你就可以说We have nothing in common.
18. What have you got to lose?
What have you got to lose?这句话当中的lose是指「失去」的意思，当有人犹豫不决，始终做不了决定，你就可以用这句话What have you got to lose? 「你有啥好损失的？」，来增强对方破釜沈舟的决心。
19. You shouldn't be so hard on yourself.
这句话是用来安慰他人的，当有人对于自己太过苛责，给与自己让人喘不过气来的压力，你就可以跟对方说这句话You shouldn't be so hard on yourself.「你不该这么苛责自己的」。让对方好过一些。
20. Don't get me started on it.
这句话是指「别让我打开话匣子」，意思是你对于某一件事或是一个主题，有很多的意见，要是让你开了话头，可能就要听你连说个七天七夜，没完没了。Don't get me started on it.这句话是用来表达你对一件事情牢骚满腹的心情。
21. When you get down to it
get down to...是指「追究出最根柢的原因」，也就是把层层的原因摊开，在抽丝剥茧之后所得到最精确最原本的那个答案。
22. let someone off
let someone off是指「放某人一马」，也就是let someone off the hook，就如同你在钓鱼，鱼儿上了「钩」hook，而你把它放掉let it off the hook「放它一马」。
23. I don't know what came over me.
这句话的使用时机是，当你觉得自己方才或是回想当时的举动反应，跟平常的自己判若两人，等自己回过味来，才觉得有所不妥，犹如中文里的「我不知道自己是哪根筋不对」。
24. I think you're thinking of somone else.
这句话的使用时机是若谁认错人，或是记错人的时候，你就可以跟对方说I think you're thinking of someone else.「我觉得你是想到别人去了」。
25. This is not how it looks.
这句话是用来辟谣的，当有些事情看起来让人误会，而实情却不是表面那般，你就可以用上这句话This is not how it looks.「事情不是表面看来的这样」，以说服他人不要指凭他们所看到的片面，骤下结论。
26. pass oneself off as...
pass oneself off as...的意思就是「某人蒙混成……以过关」，好比小孩装成大人去看限制级电影，这可能是服装的不同，或是整体打扮的乔装，甚至还包括语调口音的不同。
27. be out of someone's league
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24-Aug-2007 16:31
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^^
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以上介绍了几种写结尾段最常用的方法，但到底选择何种方法结尾还得根据文体来决定。平铺直叙的记叙文，往往在故事或事实情节讲完时文章也就自然结束了，而说理性和逻辑性较强的说明文和议论文都应有一个正式的结尾。希望以上介绍的几种方法能对大家写好结尾有所帮助。
首先，一个段落必须有一个中心即主题思想，该中心由主题句特别是其中的题旨来表达。整个段落必须紧扣这个主题(stick or hold to the topic)，这就是段落的统一性(unity)。其次，一个段落必须有若干推展句，使主题思想得到充分展开，从而给读者一个完整的感觉，这就是完整性(completeness or adequateness)。再者，一个段落不是杂乱无章的，而是有机的组合，句子的排列顺序必须合乎逻辑，从一个句子到另一个句子的过渡必须流畅(smooth)，这就是连贯性(coherence)。下面我们就对这三个标准分别加以说明。
1. 统一性
一个段落内的各个句子必须从属于一个中心，任何游离于中心思想之外的句子都是不可取的。请看下例：
Joe and I decided to take the long trip we'd always wanted across the country. We were like young kids buying our camper and stocking it with all the necessities of life. Bella bakes the best rhubarb pie. We started out in early spring from Minneapolis and headed west across the northern part of the country. We both enjoyed those people we met at the trailer park. Joe received a watch at his retirement dinner. To our surprise, we found that we liked the warm southern regions very much, and so we decided to stay here in New Mexico.
本段的主题句是段首句，controlling idea（中心思想）是take the long trip across the country。文中出现两个irrelevant sentences，一个是Bella bakes the best rhubarb pie，这一段是讲的是Joe and I，中间出现一个Bella是不合适的。还有，Joe received a watch at his retirement dinner这一句更是与主题句不相关。考生在四级统考的作文卷上常常因为造出irrelevant sentences（不相关语句）而丢分，值得引起注意。再看一个例子：
My name is Roseanna, and I like to keep physically fit. I used to weigh two hundred pounds, but I joined the YMCA for an exercise class and diet program. In one year I lost eighty pounds. I feel much better and never want to have that much weight on my five-feet frame again. I bought two new suitcases last week. Every day I practice jogging three miles, swimming fifteen laps, lifting twenty-pound weights and playing tennis for one hour. My mother was a premature baby.
本段的controlling idea 是like to deep physically fit，但段中有两个irrelevant sentences，一个是I bought two new suitcases last week，另一个是My mother was a premature baby。
从上面两个例子可以看出，native speakers同样会造出来irrelevant sentences。卷面上如果这种句子多了，造成偏题或离题，那问题就更严重了。
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24-Aug-2007 16:31
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^^
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结尾段
我们知道文章的开头很重要，因为好的开头可以吸引读者、抓住读者的注意力。同样，文章的结尾也很重要，好的结尾会使读者对全文的中心思想留下深刻的印象，可以增添文章的效果和说服力，让人深思，回味无穷。确切地说，结尾的作用就是概括全文内容，进一步强调或肯定文章的中心思想，使读者加深印象；有时也用于展望未来，提出今后方向或令人深思的问题给读者留下回味和思考的余地。
但是，如何才能写好英文短文的结尾呢? 下面就介绍几种写结尾段最常用的方法：
1．重复中心思想: 回到文章开头阐明的中心思想或主题句上，达到再次肯定和强调的效果。
(例1)A sense of humor is really one of the keys to happiness. It gives zest to life to make it worth living.
(例2)With all these benefits, it is no wonder that sports and games have now become more popular with people than ever.
2．作出结论: 文章最后用几句话概括全文内容，并进一步肯定文章的中心思想或作者的观点。
(例1)In conclusion, a good teacher-student relationship can be mutual beneficial. The students gain knowledge eagerly and enjoyably, and the teacher gains satisfaction from his job.
(例2)On the whole there are more advantages than disadvantages in the use of TV. Yet different people may have different attitude toward TV. But we must realize that television in itself is neither good nor bad. Its value to people and society depends on how we look at it.
3．应用引语: 用格言、谚语或习语总结全文，既言简意赅又有更强的说服力。
(例1)If you have anything to do, try to do it yourself, for that is the safest way to
permanent success. Remember the famous saying. "God helps those who help themselves."
(例2)If we stick to studies day after day, there is nothing that can't be achieved. As an old saying goes: "Constant dropping of water wears away a stone."
4．用反问结尾: 虽然形式是问句，但意义却是肯定的，具有明显的强调作用，引起读者思考。
(例1)Therefore, listening skills must be consciously improved. Since it is such an important means of learning and communication, why should we not develop this ability as far as possible?
(例2)So，what can we benefit from wealth if we do not have health?
5．提出展望或期望: 表示对将来的展望或期待读者投入行动。
(例1)I am sure that Chinese will become one of the most important languages in the world in the next century. As China will open further to the outside world the language is sure to be spread world widely.
(例2) If everyone has developed good manners, people will form a more harmonious relation. If everyone behaves considerately towards others and social ethics people will live in a better world. With the general mood of society improved, there will be a progress of civilization.
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24-Aug-2007 16:31
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8. 重复法(repetition)
句子的一部分反复出现在段落中，这就是重复法。它往往造成一种步步紧逼的气氛，使文章结构紧凑，有感染力。比如：
Since that time, which is far enough away from now, I have often thought that few people know what secrecy there is in the young, under terror. I was in mortal terror of the young man who wanted my heart and liver; I was in mortal terror of my interlocutor with the iron leg; I was in mortal terror of myself, from whom an awful promise had been extracted; --
该段中反复应用了I was in mortal terror of …我经常处于恐怖之中。
以上， 我们结合具体文章讨论了展开段落的几种方法。在实际写作中，我们往往不必拘泥于一种写作方法，而是将若干方法穿插在一起，使文章有声有色。
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24-Aug-2007 16:31
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^^
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4． 对比法或比较法(comparison & contrast)
将同类的事物按照某种特定的规则进行比较分析是一种常用的思维方法。通过对比，更容易阐述所述对象之间的异同和优缺点，例如：
The heart of an electronic computer lies in its vacuum tubes, or transistors. Its electronic circuits work a thousand times faster than the nicer cells in the human brain. A problem that might take a human being a long time to solve can be solved by a computer in one minute.
在这段文字上， 作者为了突出电子计算机运行速度之快，首先将它与人脑进行了比较， "-- a thousand times faster than --" ;而后，又将这一概念具体到了 "a problem"上，通过对比使读者从 "-- a long time -- in one minute"上有更加直观的认识。
常用于对本法或比较法上的过渡连接词有：than, compared with等。
5． 分类法(classification)
在阐述某一概念的段落中，常用分类法。通过对概念中所包括的事物进行分门别类，分别加以叙述，使读者有更为清晰的认识，如：
Ever since humans have lived on the earth, they have made use of various forms of communication. Generally, this expression of thoughts and feelings has been in the form of oral speech. When there is a language barrier, communication is accomplished through sign language in which motions stand for letters, words and ideas. Tourists and the people unable to hear or speak have had to resort to this form of expression. Many of these symbols of whole words are very vivid and exact and can be used internationally; spelling, however, cannot. Body language transmits ideas or thoughts by certain actions, either intentionally or unintentionally. A nod signifies approval, while shaking the head indicates a negative reaction. Other forms of nonlinguistic language can be found in signal flags, Morse code, and picture signs.
在该段中为了说明topic sentence中的 "various forms of communication"，作者将其分为oral speech, sign language, body language及other forms of nonlinguistic language，并逐加阐述。
采用这种方法的段落并没有标志突出的连接词，所述各项均为平行并列关系，所以没有明显的主次之分。
6． 因果分析法(cause and effect)
在阐述某一现象的段落中，常采用因果分析法。例如：
The role of women in today's society is changing. One reason is that women have begun to assert themselves as independent people through the women's movement. Also, women are aware of the alternatives to staying at home. Another reason is that increasing numbers of women who enter new fields and interests serve as role models for other women. Moreover, men are becoming more conscious of the abilities of women and have begun to view their independence positively.
本段中，主题句提出了一种社会现象，推展句则对产生这种现象的原因作出各种解释。 常用于因果分析法的连接词有：because, so, as a result等。
7． 定义法(definition)
在科普文章的写作中，定义法是必不可少的。通过下定义，可以使读者对该事物有一个更直接的认识。
Automation refers to the introduction of electronic control and automation operation of productive machinery. It reduces the human factors, mental and physical, in production, and is designed to make possible the manufacture of more goods with fewer workers. The development of automation in American industry has been called the "Second Industrial Revolution".
这一段文字使我们了解了 "automation" 和 "Second Industrial Revolution" 两个概念，分别由 "refers to" 和 "been called" 引出。
常出现在定义法中的词语有：refer to, mean, call等。
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24-Aug-2007 16:30
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^^
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段落发展的手段及结尾段的写法
在上一讲我们讲了主题句，推展句的写法；这一讲我们要进一步来谈一谈段落发展的几种手段以及结尾段的写法。
段落发展的几种手段
1． 列举法(details)
作者运用列举法，是通过列举一系列的论据对topic sentence中摆出的论点进行广泛、全面地陈述或解释，列举的顺序可以按照所列各点内容的相对重要性、时间、空间等进行。
Yesterday was one of those awful days for me when everything I did went wrong. First, I didn't hear my alarm clock and arrived late for work. Then, I didn't read my diary properly and forgot to get to an important meeting with my boss. During the coffee break, I dropped my coffee cup and spoilt my new skirt. At lunch time, I left my purse on a bus and lost all the money that was in it. After lunch, my boss was angry because I hadn't gone to the meeting. Then I didn't notice a sign on a door that said "Wet Paint" and so I spoilt my jacket too. When I got home I couldn't get into my flat because I had left my key in my office. So I broke a window to get in and cut my hand.
根据本段主题句中的关键词组everything I did went wrong，作者列举了8点内容，分别由first, then, during the coffee break, after lunch time等连接词语引出，使得该文条理清楚、脉络分明、内容连贯。
常用于列举法的过渡连接词有：for one thing , for another, finally, besides, moreover, one another , still another, first, second, also等。
2. 举例法(example)
作者通过举出具体事例来阐述、说明主题句的内容，严格地讲，举例法也是列举法的一种，它们的区别在于：列举法侧重罗列事实，所列事实力求全面；而举例法侧重通过举出典型事例来解释作者观点，且事例可多可少。
我们来看下面这个用举例法展开的段落。
There are many different forms of exercises to suit different tastes. For example, those who enjoy competitive sports may take up ball games. For another example, if they prefer to exercise alone, they can have a run or take a walk in the morning or in the evening. Besides, people can go swimming in the summer and go skating in the winter. In short, no matter what their interests are, people can always find more than one sports that are suitable to them.
本段采用了三个事例来说明主题句中的关键词组different forms of exercises，这三个例子分别由连接词for example, for another example 和 besides引出，最后由引导的结尾句总结全段内容。
举例法中常用的连接词有：for example (instance), one example is, besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition等。
3. 叙述法(narration)
叙述法发展段落主要是按照事物本身的时间或空间的排列顺序，通过对一些特有过渡连接词的使用，有层次分步骤地表达主题句的一种写作手段。用这种方法展开段落，作者能够清楚连贯地交待事物的本末，从而可以使读者可以清晰、完整地理解文章的含义，例如：
In the flat opposite, a woman heard the noise outside. When she looked out through the window, she discovered that her neighbor was threatened by someone. She immediately called the police station. In answer to the call, a patrol police car arrived at the scene of the crime quickly. Three policemen went inside the flat at once, and others guarded outside the building to prevent anyone from escaping.
这段是按照事物发展的先后顺序，叙述从发现案情、报警、到警察赶到、包围现场的过程。全文脉络清晰，叙述的层次感强，结构紧凑。
常用于叙述法中的过渡连接词有：first, an the beginning, to start with, after that, later, then, afterwards, in the end, finally等。
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24-Aug-2007 16:29
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怎样写好英语段落
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段落是文章的缩影。写好了段落，就能比较成功地写出较好的文章。经过中学英语基础阶段的学习之后，大学英语的写作重点就从选词造句转移到了联句成段和联段成篇上。进行段落层次上的写作训练，是写好英语文章的关键一环。下面介绍的是段落结构。
段落（ paragraph ）是由表达单一中心思想（controlling idea or central idea ）的一组句子（包括主题句 topic sentence,推展句supporting sentences及结论句concluding sentence）构成，是文章结构的基本独立单位。本讲我们将就主题句和中心思想这两个方面展开讨论。
主题句与推展句
1． 主题句
主题句（topic sentence）是表达段落主题的句子。它用以概括段落大意，要求全段其他文字都围绕它展开。请看下例：
My mother has passed along to me certain rules for getting along with others. Don't argue with parents; they will think you don't love them. Don't argue with children; they will think themselves victimized. Don't argue with spouses; they will think you are a tiresome mate. Don't argue with strangers; they will think you are not friendly. My mother's rules, in fact, can be summed up in two words: Don't argue.
主题句中提出的 "certain rules" 指的是什么？展开句中通过四个 "Don't argue --" 逐一加以交代。从结构来看，这是一个比较典型的段落，它包括了主题句，推展句和结论句（即本段中的末句）。
1．1 主题句的位置
主题句通常放在段落的开端，其特点是开门见山地摆出问题，然后加以详细说明。其作用是使文章的结构更清晰，更具说服力，便于读者迅速地把握主题和想象全段的内容。主题句可以放在段中起到承上启下的作用，或放在段尾起概括全段的作用。但初学者比较难于掌握，因而在四级考试中，考生应尽量采用将主题句放在段落开头的写作手法。
例1: Our life today depends very much on energy. In towns and in villages, on farms and in factories, machines have made life easier than it used to be. The machines use energy, and energy is needed for heating, lighting, communications, carrying goods -- everything. Factories and industrial plants use a great deal of energy to make the things that we use and buy and sell.
这段文字所讲的主要是能源问题。第一句就概括性地提出“我们目前的生活很大程度上依赖于能源”。而随后出现的三句都是具体事例，对第一句进行说明和论述。我们可以断定第一句为该段的主题句（斜体部分）。
例2: （主题句）No one can avoid being influenced by advertisements. （推展句1）Much as we may pride ourselves on our good taste, we are no longer free to choose the things we want, for advertising exerts a subtle influence on us. （推展句2）In their efforts to persuade us to buy this or that product, advertisers have made a close study of human nature and have classified all our little weakness.
以上这段由三句话组成。第一句是主题句，直截了当指出无人不受广告影响这个主题，接着列举两个推展句对其补充和支持，指出我们已无法自由选择所需的商品，理由是广告商已仔细研究了我们的心理，并完全掌握了我们的弱点。句子衔接自然，步步紧扣主题。
1．2 如何写好主题句中的关键词
段落的主题句对主题的限定主要是通过句中的关键词来表现的。关键词要尽量写得具体些。对“具体”的要求包括两个方面：一是要具体到能控制和限制段落的发展；二是要具体到能说明段落发展的方法。准确地把握关键词是清楚地表达段落主题、写好段落主题句的重要前提之一。在上面的例1，例2中，主题句的关键词分别为：depends very much on energy; no one can avoid being influenced. 我们再看下列例句：
原句1: He can fix a bicycle himself.
斜体部分应为主题句中的关键词。但它只是限制了段落发展的部分内容，并没有告诉读者该用哪种方法展开，是用因果关系法还是用分类法？
修正：He can fix a bicycle himself in several simple steps.
修正：There are several reasons why he can fix a bicycle himself.
原句2: She tries to improve her looks.
斜体部分应为主题句中的关键词。她试着改变她面容的理由是什么？或者她采取什么方法来改善呢？我们无法从关键词中清楚得知。
修正：She tries many ways to improve her looks.
修正：There are some reasons why she tries to improve her looks。
1.3 如何写好主题句的中心思想
主题句由两部分组成，即主题(topic)和中心思想（controlling idea）。中心思想的作用是导向(control)和制约(limit)。我们前面谈到的关键词就反映了中心思想。所谓导向就是规定段落的发展脉络，所谓制约就是限制主题的覆盖范围，两者不可分割。没有导向，内容就会离题或偏题；没有制约，内容就可能超出一个段落所能容纳的范围。
对于初学写作的人来说，“导向”的重要性容易理解，但如果由他们自己来构思一个主题句，就可能忽视“制约”这一面。例如：
There are two ways in which one can own a book. The first is the property right you establish by paying for it, just as you have made it a part of yourself and the best way to make yourself a part of it is by writing in it.
本段的主题句如果没有in which 引出的定语从句，那么two ways 不仅不能起制约作用，而且也不能起导向作用，句子本身读起来也就使人觉得欠缺点什么。
Exercise is beneficial to your heart. A 22-year study was conducted by doctors in California. They found that people who work at physical jobs experience fewer heart attacks than other people. These active people work all the time at moderate speeds, their daily routine gives them an adequate amount of exercise and helps them stay in shape.
"Exercise is beneficial"这是毫无疑义的。但主题句中如不加上"to your heart"来加以 control 和 limit，那就流于空泛。
因此，紧紧把握主题句中controlling idea的导向和制约作用，是短文写作成功关键之一。
2．推展句
2.1 主要推展句
主要推展句(major supporting statement)的主要特点是：围绕段落主题句展开的每一个推展句本身都不要求作进一步的说明或证明，句与句之间的关系是相互独立又是互相连接的。
例1：(主题句) There are several factors affecting climate. (推展句1)One factor is the mount of sunlight received. (推展句2)Altitude, or the height above sea level, also determines climate. (推展句3)The oceans have an effect on the climate of adjacent land. (推展句4)In addition, climate is influenced by the general circulation of the atmosphere.
主题句指出影响气候的几个因素。然后用四个扩展句说明四种因素。第一种是太阳光的接收量，第二种是海拔高度，第三句和第四句分别是海洋和大气环流因素。
2.2 次要推展句
次要推展句(minor supporting statement)是指对主要推展句作进一步的事实分析和举例说明。它从属于某一个或某几个推展句。
例2：(主题句)I don't teach because teaching is easy for me. (主要推展句1)Teaching is the most difficult of the various ways I have attempted to earn my living: mechanic, carpenter, writer. (主要推展句2)For me, teaching is a red-eye, sweaty-palm, sinking-stomach profession. (次要推展句1)Red-eye, because I never feel ready to teach no matter how late I stay up preparing. (次要推展句2)Sweaty-palm, because I'm always nervous before I enter the classroom, sure that I will be found out for the fool that I am. (次要推展句3)Sinking-stomach, because I leave the classroom an hour later convinced that I was even more boring than usual.
从属于主要推展句2的三个次要推展句起着解释说明作用，分别解释red-eye, sweaty-palm, sinking-stomach的含义，这就更加形象生动地证明了 "teaching is not easy" 这个主题。
2．3 主要推展句与次要推展句的关系
主要推展句与次要推展句的关系(relation)基本可以遵循下面的“三部分”(three-part)规则。
1〕每个主要推展句都应该是对主题句中表示主要思想的关键词的直接、明确的说明。
2〕每个次要推展句都应该说明它的主要推展句。
3〕含有讨论说明或分析的问题通常既要有主要推展素材，又要有次要推展素材。
2．4 写好推展句的方法
主题句及关键词确定后，开始选择和主题有关的信息和素材。实质上，针对关键词测试每一个所选择的素材就是一个分类的过程。有一种常用的方法就是句子展开前加以设问，然后解答，即设问－解答(why-because)的方法。下面我们通过举例来看一看这种分类过程是如何完成的。例3：
假设 (suppose) Topic sentence: English is an international language?
设问(why) Why can we say English is an international language?
解答(because)
Because: English is spoken by pilots and airport control operators on all the airways of the world.
Because: Over 70 percent of the world's mail is written in English.
Because: More than 60 percent of the world's radio programs are in English.
Because: Pakistan was once one of the British colonies.
Because: Many members of the International Language Society are selected from English-spoken countries.
从上面可以看出，最初的三个推展句是和关键词an international language一致的。第四句和主题句不统一，尽管第四句会成为另一主题句(Many Pakistanis speak English)很好的推展句。第五句说服力不强。
当然，在写成段落时，没有必要在每个句子开头写上 "because"，但是，在动笔展开句子时，头脑里要想着这个词，这种检验方法能帮助你把注意力集中在某个重心，围绕主题思想层层展开。
上面我们讨论了主要推展句的一种展开方法。而展开次要推展句的方法与主要推展句类似，这里我们就不再复述了。
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24-Aug-2007 16:29
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英语写作用词的准确表达
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一个词的意思有两方面：denotation和connotation。Denototion是词的字面意思，正如字典上所定义的一样；Connotation是由词引申联想到的意思和情感。例如country，nation，state和land，它们的字面意思多少有相似之处，都可以译成“国家”,但它们的涵义却相差甚远。Country主要指国土及国民；Nation强调民族，种族；state多指国家的政府及政府机构；而land指国家虽不够精确，但更富有文学的色彩，比country一词带有更多的感情。初学写作的人有时会选错词，但更多的时候是选词不全错，而是不够准确、地道，导致词不达意，甚至导致冒犯和误解。固此在英语写作中要学会选择准确的词来表达自己的思想。
一般来说，要把握选词的准确性, 可以从下面三方面入手。
一、要有广泛的阅读积累，才能了解词与社会、历史、文化及政治因素的关系，选词时才能符合语言习惯并与社会文化诸多背景一致。例如，英美人对landlord和peasant两词的理解与中国人截然不同。英美人对前者的理解首先是“房东”，然后才是“地主”；而peasant一词对他们来说意味着“粗俗”与“无知”，此词多少带有贬义色彩。再如propaganda一词在中国并不带有西方人所理解的贬意；而First lady（第一夫人）绝不能理解为汉语的原配夫人，因此在写作中应特别注意这类词，否则会导致冒犯和误解。
由于东西方社会历史文化的差异，许多词所引申或代表的内容也大相径庭，Phoenix在西方象征“复活”、“再生”，而汉语的这一词却表示“祥瑞”。Peach在汉语中象征“长寿”而在英语中却用以指代“特别讨人喜爱的人或物”。又比如在表示色彩的词中green是青春的颜色，常表示希望、活力，但在英语中green又与“妒忌” （to be green with envy，green-eyed）和“没有经验的”（a greeh horn）联系起来。
如果没有广泛的阅读积累，养成经常查字典的良好习惯，单凭想当然地选词，势必会词不达意。即使同一事物，在美国和英国也可能有不同的表达。例如：corn一词在美国指“玉米”而在英国泛扮“谷物”；“地铁”在英国用tube或under-groud美国则用subway。此类的例子还有pave-ment/sidewalk, Chemists' shop/drug store等。
二、在英语写作中特别要注意区分同义词，选词时要考虑主题、对象及情景（subject, audi-enc, situation）。由于历史的原因，现代英语除本族语外，还包括大量的法语和拉丁来源的饲，这就使英语的同义词相当丰富。总的来讲，英语本族语大多是短词，小词，听起来朴素）亲切，大量用于口头表达：法语来源的词庄重文雅，多与行政、宗教、军事、服饰等有关；拉丁来源的词，书卷味浓, 如ask，question，inter－rogate这三个不同来源的同义词在不同的主题、对象、情景下用法就不一样。
同义词除了来源的不同会影响措词的选择外，它们在程度、感情色彩上也有不同。比如“瘦”可以用slender，slim，lean, thin，underweight，gaunt, lanky，skinny等来表达，而sleder表示“苗条”是褒义的，skinny却是贬义的，underweight则是中性的词。
即使同是褒义词，表达的感情色彩也不同。比如little和petite两个同义词当用来描绘女子时，都意为“个子小”的，但petite同时还有“匀称”的意义，而little更强调“可爱的”或“可怜的”，根据不同的上下文，它还有“纤小”、“娇小”或“弱小”等不同意义。因此在选词表达思想时，一定要分清主题，对象及情景。
另外让中国学生头痛的是一些同义词的习惯搭配。比如large和big都指“大”，但large通常用来修饰诸如number，amount及quantity（a large nunlber of students，a large almount of money，a large quantity of wine，etc）。但象“勇气”，“信心”，”能力”、“智慧”等表示个人素质的名词，人们通常用呷碰而不用big或large来修饰。由此可见，在英语写作实践中，区分同义词的用法是相当重要的。
三、选择措词应把握好英语和汉语词汇无法对应的部分
不是所有的英语词汇都有相应的汉语表达，一些不同的英语词汇也有可能用同样的汉语来表达，这就使我们在用英语来表达思想对面临更多选择上的困难。比如family和home两词都可译成汉语的“家”，但它们却不是同义词。Family主要指家庭成员，与人有关，而home主要指所居住的地点、住宅。Except和besides有时都译成同样的汉语“除了”,但他们的意思却是相反的。因此我们不能依赖于单纯的汉语译意。否则我们可能会被误导。尽管许多英语对应的汉语词汇都能表达它们真正的意思，但往往有些英语词汇没有准确的汉语对应词；所以只有在不同的上下文中才能确定它们真正的意思，比如send一词，如果单把它理解成汉语的“送”的话，象这样的句子“她送信给我”也许会被写成she sent me the letter.而英语准确的表达应是she brought me the letter.再如“他将送朋友去机场”，如果写成He will send his friend to the airpot。就又错了。正确的表达应该是He will go to the airpot with his friend to see him off. 实际上send sth to a place 应该是请别人送去，自己不去。因此，要确定我们所选的词是否准确、恰当，单凭查词典还不行。
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24-Aug-2007 16:28
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^^
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二、短文评论（Brief Comment）阶段。
短评是就所学课文或阅读材料进行评论。通过分析原文中的内容和观点，提出一定的看法。短评可以是对原文观点表示赞同，也可以提出异议或不同看法。如对前文便可作以下评论：
From the article we learned about British shops, about their opening and closing time and their service. But we find that there are something inconvenient with British shop service. First is the time. Shops in Britain open very late and close too early. Second is that there is almost no Sunday service. Where can people go if they suddenly need to buy something? The last is the habit of queuing. It will be a waste of time if the queue is too long.
初学阶段，短文评论的字数一般也应在150字左右，不宜写大多。短评是一种“一半依材一半发挥”的习作方式。在内容上，一部分取自原文，一部分靠自己的思考。在用词上，可以部分地依赖原文，也需使用一些其它词汇。此外，短评的行文布局和用句也是一半模仿，一半创造。短评的这种特点使它非常适合承接短文缩写阶段，而又为后期阶段打下一定的基础。
三、引导写作(Guided Writing)阶段。
引导写作可分为重新编排句子顺序。规定情景作文。看图作文。提纲作文。关键词作文等形式。这些形式均可以用于训练，但以提纲作文和关键词作文多用为佳. 提纲作文是一种给出题目和段落提纲的习作方式，其段落写作提纲可以采用段落主旨句的形式，也可以是短语。关键词作文是一种给出作文题目和一些关键词或词组的命题作文形式。由于有段落写作提纲或主旨句等，进行习作时，减少了审题环节，且写作思路受到引导。在训练初期，引导写作的命题应尽量与所学英语书本的内容挂钩，使学生能够参照一部分课文所学的词汇与结构，避免大多生词。如针对上篇短文便可出一道相关命题引导学生习作：
题目：shops in China
提纲：（1）中国商店的作息时间 （2）中国商店的周未服务情况 （3）中国商店服务态度的好坏 以上是关于英语习作初级阶段的训练步骤。三个步骤的三种形式，相承相继，循序渐进，为进入自由命题写作打下了良好的基础。既适合教师指导学生习作课使用，也适合学习者自我训练。事实证明，这三个步骤是英语习作人门的有效做法。
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24-Aug-2007 16:28
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英语写作三步骤
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训练指导者方针的好坏是一个前提条件。合理地设置训练程序，使英语习作从初级到高级沿着一条循序渐进，由简到多的进程发展是成功训练者必须具备的指导思想。本篇认为，在习作训练的初期，应采纳一条从有材料可依的习作方式过渡到脱离本本进行自由写作方式的途径。从有材可依到元材可依的训练过程应包括三个阶段：
一、短文缩写（Summary）阶段。
短文缩写可以是就所学课文进行缩写，也可以采用其它阅读材料，但要求被缩写的材料难易程度不超过所学课本。被用于进行缩写的课文或其它材料必须观点明确，层次分明，叙述有条理。缩写时应做到简明扼要，抓住重点，不要拖泥带水，没有主次。初学阶段的被缩写材料不宜太长，以不超一千词为佳，缩写文以不超过2m词为佳。以下就一篇短文进行缩写，限于篇幅，短文内容有所节略。
Most shops in Britain open at 9.00 a.m. and close at 5.00 or 5.30 in the evening. Small shopsusually close for an hour at lunchtime. On one or two days a week-usually Thursday and/or Friday-some large food shops stay until about 8.00 p.m. for late night shopping.
Many shops are closed in the afternoon on one day a week. The days is usually Wednesday orThursday and it is a different day in different towns. Nearly all shops are closed on Sunday. News-paper shops are open in the morning, and sell sweets and cigarettes as well. But there are legal restrictions on selling many things on Sundays. Many large food shops(supermarkets)are self-service. When you go into one of these shops you take a basket and you put the things you wish to buy into it. You queue up at the cash-desk and pay for everything just before you leave. If anyone tries to take things from a shop without paying they are almost certain to be caught. Most shops have store detectives who have the job of catching shoplifters. Shoplifting is considered a serious crime by the police and the courts. When you are waiting to be served in a shop, itis important to wait your turn. It is important not to try to be served before people who arrived before you. Many people from overseas are astonished at the British habit of queuing.
将短文缩写如下：
This article tells us about British shops. British shops usually open at 9.00 a.m. and close at 5.00or 5.30 p.m. Many shops are closed in the afternoon one day a week. Nearly all shops are closed on Sundays. In Britain, many large food shops are self-service. And when you wait to be served in a shop, you have to wait patiently for your turn.
这是一篇不超过100词的缩写，句子基本上由原文各段落的主要内容构成。个别段落被完全删除以保证缩写重点突出，前后连贯。缩写是一种“依材剪贴”的习作方式，基本上采用原材料中的词语和句子，仅作了部分调整，是最初级的习作方式。
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24-Aug-2007 16:27
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英语写作三步骤
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训练指导者方针的好坏是一个前提条件。合理地设置训练程序，使英语习作从初级到高级沿着一条循序渐进，由简到多的进程发展是成功训练者必须具备的指导思想。本篇认为，在习作训练的初期，应采纳一条从有材料可依的习作方式过渡到脱离本本进行自由写作方式的途径。从有材可依到元材可依的训练过程应包括三个阶段：
一、短文缩写（Summary）阶段。
短文缩写可以是就所学课文进行缩写，也可以采用其它阅读材料，但要求被缩写的材料难易程度不超过所学课本。被用于进行缩写的课文或其它材料必须观点明确，层次分明，叙述有条理。缩写时应做到简明扼要，抓住重点，不要拖泥带水，没有主次。初学阶段的被缩写材料不宜太长，以不超一千词为佳，缩写文以不超过2m词为佳。以下就一篇短文进行缩写，限于篇幅，短文内容有所节略。
Most shops in Britain open at 9.00 a.m. and close at 5.00 or 5.30 in the evening. Small shopsusually close for an hour at lunchtime. On one or two days a week-usually Thursday and/or Friday-some large food shops stay until about 8.00 p.m. for late night shopping.
Many shops are closed in the afternoon on one day a week. The days is usually Wednesday orThursday and it is a different day in different towns. Nearly all shops are closed on Sunday. News-paper shops are open in the morning, and sell sweets and cigarettes as well. But there are legal restrictions on selling many things on Sundays. Many large food shops(supermarkets)are self-service. When you go into one of these shops you take a basket and you put the things you wish to buy into it. You queue up at the cash-desk and pay for everything just before you leave. If anyone tries to take things from a shop without paying they are almost certain to be caught. Most shops have store detectives who have the job of catching shoplifters. Shoplifting is considered a serious crime by the police and the courts. When you are waiting to be served in a shop, itis important to wait your turn. It is important not to try to be served before people who arrived before you. Many people from overseas are astonished at the British habit of queuing.
将短文缩写如下：
This article tells us about British shops. British shops usually open at 9.00 a.m. and close at 5.00or 5.30 p.m. Many shops are closed in the afternoon one day a week. Nearly all shops are closed on Sundays. In Britain, many large food shops are self-service. And when you wait to be served in a shop, you have to wait patiently for your turn.
这是一篇不超过100词的缩写，句子基本上由原文各段落的主要内容构成。个别段落被完全删除以保证缩写重点突出，前后连贯。缩写是一种“依材剪贴”的习作方式，基本上采用原材料中的词语和句子，仅作了部分调整，是最初级的习作方式。
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24-Aug-2007 16:27
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^^
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no sooner...than, not...until, in no time, none other than, nothing but,等等。例句：
1） We can't but face the reality.
我们只有面对现实。
2） These old buildings will be replaced by modern apartment buildings in no time.
这些旧建筑将很快为现代化的公寓所代替。
4． 否定结构的倒装语序
我们有时为了强调而把否定词和词组放在句首，这时句子结构应倒装。例如：
1） On no account should we follow blindly.我们决不应当盲从。
2） No where has the world ever seen such great enthusiasm for learning as in our
country.没有任何其他地方有我国这样高的学习热情。
五、 含有it的结构
考生病句：
1. As is known to all of us that science and technology play an important role in the
development of society.
2. It is known to us, practice makes perfect.
正确表达：
1. It is known to all of us that science and technology play an important role in the
development of society. (或:As is known to all of us, science...)
2. It is known to us that practice makes perfect. (或:As is known to us, practice...)
评议与分析：
例句1是93年12月六级考试11分作文的评分样卷句子，例句2选自97年1月四级考试作文。很显然，两个考生混淆了it和as的用法。如果用it作形式主语，后面的主语从句必须由that引起；如果用as，则后面不能用that，因为as是关系代词，代表practice makes perfect。
It 在英语中是个相当活跃的代词，在写作中我们常要使用它。以下几种用法应熟练掌握，并能灵活运用。
1．作形式主语
It is necessary for us to master a foreign language skillfully. It makes difference whether
we could purify the air or not.
2.作形式宾语
We find it rather difficult to prevent people from doing that. Modern science has made it
possible for babies to grow healthily and for people to live longer.
3.引导强调句
It is only by this way that we can achieve success. It was then that people began to realize
the importance of controlling population.
从语法结构来看，上述的句子都不难，或者可以说是考生相当熟悉的。然而在写作考试中，多数考生缺乏运用自己已掌握的句式的意识，而以自己头脑中拼凑的中式英语取而代之。其实，只要能恰当地运用上述的任何一个句式，考生的作文就会出现闪光点，就会取得比较好的成绩。
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24-Aug-2007 16:26
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^^
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我们在前面曾提过学生的作文主要有以下几个方面的问题：
第一、英语底子太薄。
第二、词汇量太小，且对已学词汇记忆不清。
第三、表达思想不清楚。 下面我们以考生的实际作文来进行一下分析。
1） Some one consider that fresh water will not touch it's end.(96年1月，2分)
2） One man's life lack of money, he will impossible to live on. （95年1月，5分）
3） As is know, that there are much fake commodities in today's society.(97年12月，6分)
这里引述的例句与考生通篇作文的写作水平是一致的，其中5、6分的例句具有典型性，代表了近乎中等水平考生的写作水平。从这些例句中不难看出，中等水平的考生，事实上也包括中上等水平的考生，在写作上存在的主要问题是表达思想不清楚。
表达思想不清楚的主要原因是考生作文中严重汉化的英语，即中式英语，比如： "man can live happiness"， "Man is iron, and food is steel.", ＂Women are half side sky.＂。此外，语言错误的普遍性和严重性十分惊人，比如，主谓不一致，名词单复数不分，动词时态语态滥用，常用词拼写错误比比皆是。这些严重地影响了思想的表达。考试实践表明，多数考生在写作上的主要欠缺不是系统的写作理论和方法，而是最基本的单句写作能力。
文章无论长短，都是由句子组成的，句子是表达思想的最基本的单位。因此，句子是否能写得正确、达意和清楚，将直接影响整篇文章的写作质量。大学英语四、六级考试和研究生入学英语考试的实践都表明，考生写作成绩长期得不到明显提高的主要原因是欠缺写好单句的能力。
为改变这种状况，我们将从剖析考生作文中的典型病句入手，对写作测试中的基本句子结构和写法进行评议和分析，来帮助考生进一步提高句子写作能力。
否定结构除了在助动词、情态动词，be和have后面加not之外，还有许多不含not的否定结构。若能正确使用他们，文章会显得生动活泼，增加写作的闪光点。下面我们就来看看:
1． 含有否定意义的词汇和短语
以下列举的词和词组本身就具有否定的含义，因此无需用否定词。
介词against, beyond, but, except, without,...
形容词和动词absent, deny, differ, different, fail, free, ignore, miss, refuse, the last, used to,
reluctant, lack, want,...
短语keep...from, protect...from, prevent...from, let alone, at a loss, in vain, instead of, out
of the question, rather than, too...to, by no means, anything but,...
我们看以下例句：
1） Women fail to get the equal rights in some countries.
在一些国家里妇女没有得到平等的权利。
2） This is by no means the best way to solve the problem of energy crisis.
这不是解决能源危机的最好的办法。
3） We should protect trees from being destroyed.
我们应保护树木，不让它们受破坏。
4） In old China we could not make a nail, let alone(make) machines.
在旧中国，我们连一个钉子都造不了，更不用说制造机器了。
2． 含有半否定意义的词语
barely, hardly, few, little, rarely, scarcely, seldom, not all, not everyone, not everything,...具
有半否定的意义。例句：
1） We could hardly see any fresh vegetables in winter on market several years ago.
几年前在冬天市场上很难见到新鲜蔬菜。
2） These young people know little about how to choose good books to read.
这些年轻人几乎不知道如何挑选优秀的书籍来读。
3． 不含否定意义的否定结构
有些词和词组形式上是否定结构，但其含义是肯定的，比如：cannot but, can't help,
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24-Aug-2007 16:26
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怎样写好英语句子
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一、 ＂There be＂结构
考生病句：
1. There are many people like to go to the movies.
2. There are different kinds of vegetables can be bought on the market by people.
正确表达：
1. There are many people who like to go to the movies.
2. There are different kinds of vegetables that people can buy on the market.
这两个例句的错误比较有普遍性，因为在历次考试中有不少考生不能正确运用there be这一最常用的句式。在这种结构中，there是引导词，没有实际意义。be在句中作谓语，有时态和数的变化。
例如：
1. There was no school in the village at that time. (=there was not a school...)
注意：在否定句中，否定词用no，也可用not a或not any。not a后接单数名词，not a 后接复数名词，no后面的名词单复数都可以。
2. There is not a moment to be lost.
3. There are many people rushing into the cities every year.
4. There are many things we can do to prevent traffic accidents.
5. There is no use holding back the wheel of history.
从以上例句还可看出，句中的主语后面可接多种修饰语，如介词短语、不定式短语、定语从句、分词短语等等。这无疑使该结构增加了表现力，使句子表达内容更加丰富。 在运用这一结构时，考生最容易犯的错误是在there be之后又用了一个动词作谓语，使句子结构出现严重错误。这里列举的考生的典型错误均属这种情况，对此我们在写作中要格外注意。
二、 比较结构
考生病句：
1. Comparing with the bike, the car runs much faster.
2. The climate in Walton is colder than other cities.
正确表达：
1. Compared with the bike, the car runs much faster.
2. The climate in Walton is colder than that of other cities.
评议与分析：许多考生在作文中用compare或than表示比较，但相当多的表达有误。
在例1中，对两个事物进行比较的句式为Compared with A, B...,只能用compare的过去分词，不能用现在分词，因为B是分词的逻辑主语，只能被比较。在例2中，考生误将"天气"与"城市"进行比较，而二者没有可比性，只有将后者改为"其他城市的天气"才符合逻辑，很显然，考生的错误是受了汉语表达习惯的影响。
比较结构是常用结构，正确地使用这一结构可以使文章的句式增加变化，有利于提高写作成绩。一般说来，考生若能恰当、正确地运用这一结构，其写作成绩应在5分以上。
下面是比较结构的一些常用的表达方法。
1． 同级比较
1） In 1998 we produced as many cars as we did in the previous five years.
2） We have accomplished as much in the past three years as would have taken ten years
in the past.
2． 比较级
1） Children now enjoy better medical treatment than before.
2） We can live longer without food than we can (live ) without water.
3． 最高级
1） This is the most interesting book I've ever read.
2） Of all his novels I like this one best.
4． the more…the more…结构
1) The harder you work, the greater progress you will make.
2) The more a man knows, the more he discovers his ignorance.
5． 选择比较
1) I prefer staying at home to going out.
2) They prefer to work rather than (to) sit idly.
3) He prefers to work alone.
注意：这里的1）句用的是Prefer A to B结构，to为介词，后接名词或动名词；2）句是以不定式作 prefer的宾语；3）句用法同2），只是不把rather than部分表达出来。
6． 对比
1) Motion is absolute while stagnation is relative.
2) He is tired out, whereas she is full of vigour.
注意：while 和whereas均可用于连接两个意义对立的分句，相当于汉语的"而"字。许多考生能较好地运用这一句式，尤其在图表作文中。
三、 表达原因的结构
考生病句：
1. The real reason to our failure is not far to seek.
2. The reason for this is because some people want to earn plenty of money without
working hard.
正确表达：
1. The real reason for our failure is not far to seek.
2. The reason for this is that some people want to earn plenty of money without working
hard.
评议与分析：
以上两个病句分别引自92年1月和97年12月四级考试的考生作文。从遣词造句上看，这两位考生具有一定的写作能力，not far to seek, plenty of money以及without working hard等均运用正确、恰当。但令人遗憾的是，第一位考生不知道reason不与to搭配而应接介词for，第二位考生犯了一个中国学生常犯的错误，就是用because引起表语从句，because这个词不能引起表语从句，在本句中只能改用that才正确。
掌握好表达原因的结构是十分重要的，几乎所有的写作试题都要求写原因或可以写原因。在大学英语四、六级考试、研究生入学英语考试以及TOEFL考试中，写作的文体基本上是议论文，而议论文的基本模式是摆事实、讲道理，讲道理就是说明原因。写作测试的文体决定了表达原因结构的重要性。
英语中用来表达原因这一概念的结构有多种。我们可用as , because, since, seeing that, considering that, now that, not that...等词组引出表示原因的从句。例如：
1. Now that we have seen these great achievements with our own eyes, we feel more
proud than ever of our country.
2. Professor Liu is strict with us because he wants us to make rapid progress.
3. Since we live near the sea, we enjoy a healthy climate.
4. Pollution is still a serious problem, not that we don't have the ability to solve it, but that
some people have not realized the consequences of the problem.
我们还可以借助某些词语用简单句表达原因结构。例如：
1. The reason for this change is quite obvious.
2. Diligence is the key factor of success.
3. Idleness is the root of all evils.
4. He was ashamed to have made the mistake.(=He was ashamed that he had made the
mistake. =He was ashamed because he had made the mistake.)
除了上述的例句外，英语中还有很多或易或难的表达原因的结构。我们在进行写作训练的时候，不能满足于一知半解，要讲究书面语言的正确性和准确性。比如，because是最常用的引导原因从句的连词，语气最强，表示直接的原因，若because置于句首，后面的主句不能再用so。用as引导的原因从句语气较弱，所说明的原因是附带的，而since表示的原因暗示着是稍加分析之后才能推断出来的原因。
四、 否定结构
考生病句
1. Some people think we needn't to worry about fresh water.
2. Nowadays many people don't like to go to the movies, too.
正确表达：
1. Some people think we needn't worry (或don't need to worry) about fresh water.
2. Nowadays many people don't like to go to the movies, either.
评议与分析：
例句1选自96年1月四级考生作文，例句2选自92年1月六级考生作文。例句1 的错误在于该考生混淆了need作为情态动词和作为普通动词的用法。need作为情态动词时，主要用于否定句，后面的动词不带to, needn't worry，作we的谓语。need作为实意动词时，可用于肯定句、否定句和疑问句，don't need to worry 中的to worry作don't need的宾语。例句2的错误在于该考生混淆了too和either的区别，这两个词都表示"也"的意思，但是在英语中too, also只能用于肯定句，而either只能用于否定句。
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24-Aug-2007 16:24
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英文写作中词语的选择
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1．词语选择的重要性
在The Right Word at the Right Time的“序言”中，编者对词语选用的重要性作了一个很好的比喻：“Using the right word at the right time is rather like wearing appropriate clothing for the occasion：
it is a courtesy to others，and a favor to yourself-a matter of presenting yourself well in the eyes of the world."
显然，说话或写文章时用词适当比穿着适当难度大得多，因而也具有更大的重要性。在我国，古人写文章时常为一个词语的选用具思苦想，因而有“语不惊人死不休”的说法。
成语“一字值千金”也说明了选择词语的极端重要性。有时“一字之差”造成令人遗憾的败笔，或招致成千上万的经济损失。这些反面的教训也告诉我们必须重视词语选用的问题。
2．词语选择的可能性
实际上，我们每个人的脑子里都有了一个或大或小的词库，只要我们肯去发掘，往往可以得到更好的表达方式。这是我们做好词语选用的主观条件。
从客观条件广看，我们有各种类型的词典和参考书，只要我们平时多翻译、多阅读，写作时勤查考，就会在词语选用上不断进步。当然，一部好词典也不会毫无缺点，更难以面面俱到，因此在这里我们应牢牢记住著名英国作家、评论家和辞书编纂家Johson的话：
Dictionaries are like watches: the worst is better than none, and the best cannot be expected to go quite true.
3．词语选择的三项标准
关于择语标准，人们说法不一，但准确、鲜明、生动三项原则是公认的。当然，某词语用得是否符合要求，不可孤立地从词语本身的含义上着眼，还要看其具体使用场合，包括同其他词语搭配等。
1)择语的准确性
准确性，就是要根据使用场合选用确切的语言形式，正如有句英语俗语所言：
Do not write so that your words may be undetstood, but write so that your words must be understood.
著名美国作家马克·吐温说：“用词准确与用词几乎准确，这两者之间的差异就如闪电与萤火虫之间的差异。”(The difference between the right word and the almost-right word is as great as that between lighting and the lighting bug．)
为了择语准确，必须熟悉词语的多义性。例如depression对心理学家、经济学家或地质学家来说，含义各不相同：
He is in a state of deep depression as a result of his setback latest experiment.
The depression first hit almost all the small and medium-sized enterprises.
Transportation was at a standstill caused by the depressions in the highways after the earthquake in that area.
反之，也常常有几个词语可以表示类似的含义，如心理学上的“depression”也能用melancholia，the blues，the dismal in the dumps，low等词语表示。
要做到准确选择，有必要注意词语的两种意义：“基本意义”(denotation)和"引申意义"(connotation)。前者指该词语的本身，或客观的固有含义，后者指该词语在一定搭配或上下句中出现的其他意义，往往比较含蓄，带有词语使用者的主观态度或感情色彩。如inexpensive和cheap都表示便宜的基本意思，如顾客问营业员：“May I have some thing cheaper?”意思是希望要价钱便宜一点的，当然并不是说质量可以不好，但cheap在其他句式或使用场合可引出“低劣”、“平庸”、“吝啬”、“卑鄙”等多种意思，这类意思正是修辞上的“敏感地带”。
选用词语的准确性还表现在区分表示大体/抽象含义的词语和表示具体/特定含义的词语上，需要根据不同的使用场合做出正确的选择。抽象含义词语和具体含义词语不是两个对立的家族，在一定的条件下可以转化，如
labor一词通常带抽象含义，但并非一成不变。试比较：
A)Honest labor creates wealth for the society.
B)In the GM contract dispute, labor seeks a five-cent per hour wage increase.
上述A句中labor一词为抽象含义，泛指各种社会劳动，B句中labor为具体含义，特指WAW，即美国汽车、飞机、农业机械工人联合会。
2)择语的鲜明度
准确性是鲜明度的前提，也是提高鲜明度的基础。然而，鲜明与简练相关。英国文豪莎士比亚的名言“Brevity is the soul of wit”相当于汉语的“言贵简洁”。我们说话、写文章都要以“言简意赅”四字为目标，为此，应从两个方面加以注意：
A．在可以运用较简短的常见词语表达意思时不要用复杂而少的词语，如：do something for(不用perform，
accomplish)，用end／finish a letter (不用terminate，conclude)。
B．多余的或转弯抹角的词语都不利于明白地表达思想，因而下列短语中加括号的部分都应省去：
mutual aid(to each other)(mutual)aid to each other，(an entirely)complete confidence，repeat the
question(again)，return(back) from abroad，etc．
3)择语的生动感
生动感也可以叫做优美感(gracefulness)，它是建筑在准确性和鲜明度的基础上的，否则，单纯追求生动或优雅，就会出现辞藻华丽(flowery)而内容空洞的文风，这是应当避免的。
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24-Aug-2007 16:23
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用词要简洁
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“简洁”的反面是“(口罗)唆”。好文章要简洁，不应(口罗)唆。
下列两个句子中，(a) 属(口罗)唆型，(b) 是简洁体：
(1) a. The stranger was conveyed to his place of residence in an intoxicated condition.
b. The stranger was carried home drunk.
(2) a. No one sees the necessity for a meeting now.
b. No one feels it necessary to meet now.
用词要怎样才算是简洁呢？
下面是三个可以遵循的原则：
1. 删除掉不必要的字眼，如：
(3) The downpour, which started last night, has come to a stop now.
这里的形容词从句“which ...... night”可有可无，无比有好，最好去掉，然后再把句子简化如下：
“Last night's downpour has stopped now.”
(4) It happened that Mr. Yap was elected to the position of Chairman of the well-established Singapore Literature Society that existed in this country.
这个句子内容简单，但却有24个字，其中有个主句和两个从句，显然(口罗)唆复杂了些，可以简化如下：
“Mr. Yap was elected Chairman of this country's well-established Singapore Literature Society.”
2. 试用一个贴切的词取代几个同义词，如：
(5) David, the director, called me up on the phone.
这里的“on the phone”和片语动词“called up”发生冲突，只好把它牺牲了，或把句子改写：
“David, the director, called me up.／David, the directr, telephoned me.”
(6) John walked very hastily down the street leading to the bus station.
这里的“walked very hastily”和“hurried”同义。为什么弃简从繁呢？
3. 试把过于冗长的句子加以节缩，如：
(7) The increasing filthy water in some areas through poll ution has troubled and upset environmental scientists for a period of one and a half decades.
→ The increasing water pollution in some areas has upset environmental scientists for 15 year
(8) All students in college are required to take different tests. These tests are for the purpose of determining what courses the students are suitable to take.
→ All college students are required to take different tests to determine what courses suit them.
(9) ALthough the story is supernatural in nature, the story-teller manages to put over his point and show the effects on a person when he is confronted with the fact that there exists a certain degree of evil in everyone's physical make up.
→ The story-teller uses supernatural elements to imply that there is a certain degree of evil in a person.
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